Hello world!!! Here we meet again in this blog. Now, I would like to share everyone with my second posting that had been asked by my lecturer, Datin Dr. Norizan to complete my blog’s assignments. Various methods have been proposed to make teaching more effective and attractive. Based on Barker (2000) observes, “ a rapid growth in the use of online materials and electronic teaching webs in realizing educational objectives. In fact, the number of studies on the use of tools that are available on the Internet is fast growing. Among the tools that have been tried for language teaching are the electronic mail, the bulletin board the online chatroom, the computer conferencing and the web-based online learning system.”According to the OTL book, in a study of the tone used by a teacher when communicating electronically with his student, Gonzalez (1995) reported that the instructor was less formal in his classroom-based version of the course than with these that he had to communicate with electronically. In another study, which was conducted by Thirunarayanan and Perez-Prado (2001/2002) at the College of Education in a state-funded university in the Florida, they are trying to compared the performance of online with offline students. The offline students met the teacher once a week for three hours, while the online students met the instructor three times during the semester. Thirunarayanan and Perez-Prado claimed that the online students did well better in the course than their classroom-based counterparts.
Based from my reading through the OTL book and also the studies in the same book, I am completely agree with the online studies as it can help the students to improve their learning. One of the benefits that online students could get is it can improve our writing skills and language as well. Through the online research too, students can improve their writing by reading a lots of articles and learning vocabulary also grammar through the provided link. This is one of the example of Computerized-Assisted Writing to show that how effective online studies are :-
Computer-Assisted Writing Instruction:
A Marriage of Effective Instruction and Technology
A Review of Literature
Karen Kelly
Introduction
The writing process has long held a reputation of intimidation for educators who teach it, andstudents who learn it. Once success is achieved, however, it yields a greater sense ofaccomplishment for both parties than perhaps any other academic task. Many strategies forteaching and learning the writing process have been introduced over the years, and most haveexperienced some success; yet effective writing still tends to be a challenge.Integrating technology into this process may have the potential to make a greater impact thanany other strategy to date. Computer-assisted writing instruction opens up a multitude of avenuesfor any student, from the intellectually gifted to the learning disabled. The introduction of wordprocessors has facilitated the editing and revising process in ways never before available, andpublishing has become a breeze. Kantrov (1991) points out that the most obvious benefit, ofcourse, is the elimination of the need to recopy successive drafts. This feature accounts for muchof the enthusiasm for word processing by both student and experienced writers, even those whootherwise find fault with the technology. Writing software teaches the writing process in ways thatare fun and motivating for students, while acting as a personal writing tutor along the way.There are even voice-controlled writing programs that alleviate frustration and allow for oncelimitedwriting opportunities for students with physical impairments. Research from the CALLCentre (2000) shows that some students with progressive conditions such as muscular dystrophyhave good fine motor control but may be very weak – they may be able to write only very slowly,and may produce only a small amount of text before getting tired. With the correct supportivetechnology they will be able to write more with less effort.It would seem that the argument in favor of computer-assisted writing instruction would be onesided.There are, however, always two sides to every argument. According to Haas (1996), whileword processors undoubtedly have eased our production and revision of texts, they have alsoaltered our spatial and tactile relationship to the writing process. Some would argue these changesare not necessarily for the better. Do the majority of educators and students find technology to be amajor motivator in mastering the writing process? Do technology-based writing tools, such asword processors, actually improve the effectiveness of writing? Are the editing and revisingfeatures used with technology-based writing tools truly more preferred and efficient than erasingand re-writing? This review of literature will investigate the research related to these issues, aswell as others, to determine the effectiveness of computer-assisted writing instruction.file:///A|/Kelly_litrev.htm (1 of 10) [9/17/2002 1:38:03 PM]Computer-Assisted Writing Instruction:DiscussionOne of the aspects that makes learning to write so difficult is that it is a process. It is notsomething that can be done well quickly, and often does not yield instant results, as do so manyacademic tasks. The National Council of the Teachers of English (n. d.) has adopted a variety ofsteps which are regarded as the writing process. Erickson (1992) notes that these steps become thewriter’s system for completing writing assignments, and, according to Tompkins (1990), theyinclude the following: (a) prewriting, (b) writing the rough draft, (c) revising with major changesin ideas and organization, (d) editing for surface errors such as spelling and punctuation, and (e)publishing the final draft for others to read.Traditionally, students met in a classroom for writing instruction and practiced writing thestandard essay by hand. Instruction was most commonly directed by a teacher standing behind alectern, dictating the rules of writing, or by the teacher marking errors on student text. Rough draftcopies were turned in for the teacher to “bleed” all over by annotating mistakes in spelling,mechanics, usage, grammar, and organization with a red pen. These de-motivating drafts were thenreturned to the students, with all of their mistakes pointed out, leaving those who had difficulties tostart again at ground zero. As students progressed to the high school and college levels, they weretaken to the typing lab to produce a final draft in typewritten form, once editing wascomplete.With technology redefining what it means to be literate – not just the ability to read and write,but to understand music, video, hypertext, and networked communications – it is obvious thattraditional writing pedagogy is a thing of the past (Stinson & Claus, 2000). To make thissuccessful transition, the teacher’s role has shifted from controller to facilitator. This role is notcomfortable for many educators, however, who find that their own feelings of inadequacy andintimidation towards technology are a significant deterrent in their decision to incorporate it intoteaching the writing process.Michael Reed (1990), in his study of the effects of computer-assisted writing instruction onprospective English teachers’ attitudes toward and perceived uses of computers in writinginstruction, found anxiety levels to be considerable. He also found that many of these teachers didnot have the experience base in using writing technology effectively themselves as exiting collegestudents, much less the ability to teach with it. Through an eleven-week course on writing andcomputers, in which the pre-teachers were taught to be more proficient keyboarders, given practicein utilizing various writing software, and given strategies in planning lessons integratingtechnology into the writing lessons, notable changes occurred.Reed summarized the results of his study by pointing out that the eleven-week treatment ofusing computers in writing seemed effective at making these prospective English teachers moreaware of computers in general. In addition, the teachers became more knowledgeable of how touse computers and how to manage their time when using them. Another improvement was that thestudent teachers became more cognizant of the effects of the use of computers on the learning oftheir future students. A final advantage was learning how to manage students when usingfile:///A|/Kelly_litrev.htm (2 of 10) [9/17/2002 1:38:03 PM]Computer-Assisted Writing Instruction:computers, as well as when it is most appropriate to usethem.If prospective teachers have anxiety about the how, when, and where to use computers to teachthe writing process, veteran teachers are probably not far behind. In fact, Wresch (1987) citesseveral reasons that prospective English teachers are not trained in the use of technology in thewriting process, including the lack of trained English education faculty, the attitudes that “Englishtypes” have toward the computers, their prior computer experience, and the logistical difficulty ofincluding such instruction in language arts courses that contain subject matter that may also benovel to them.These existing attitudes and beliefs must change to best serve the needs of the 21st-centurywriting student. Gaining expert knowledge and knowing when to apply available writingtechnology is a must for teachers who plan to successfully deliver computer-assisted writinginstruction. In addition, veteran teachers will have to take a proactive stance in becomingproficient with the newest technology tools of the writing process.In order to become one such teacher that successfully integrates technology into the writingprocess, it is necessary to have a firm understanding of what it entails. As its name implies,computer-assisted writing instruction refers to teaching writing with the assistance of a computer.The role that the computer plays in this instruction comes in various forms. Word processingsoftware, as well as individual student laptop word processors, are, perhaps, the most commontechnology tools being used in the field.Apple’s Claris MacWrite program, along with Microsoft’s Word and Works programs offerschools affordable, yet effective word processing packages. Many school districts have eveninvested in the AlphaSmart, an individual student laptop computer, which serves strictly as a wordprocessor. Simic (1994) notes that as a tool for practice in writing, the word processor’s usefulnessis unparalleled. Kurth (1987), in research conducted concerning the use of word processors toenhance revision strategies during student writing activities, further states that word processingimproves student attitudes and motivation towards writing. Robinson-Staveley and Cooper (1990)report significant performance differences in students who word process and those who write byhand. Areas in which students show gains include fewer mechanical problems, greater averagesentence length, greater number of complex sentence structures, and overall higher scores on finalproducts. Snyder (1993) reports that reviews of the research of word processing indicate that thereis an increase in revisions, fewer mistakes, and more correction of them. Additionally, when wordprocessing use is combined with an effective teaching model, students achieve at a higher levelthan those not using a word processor.It has long been theorized that the best method for learning to write more effectively is to writemore often; and the best way to revise and edit more effectively is to revise and edit more often.Flower (1985) points out that a sign of a good writer is his or her ability to revise. Bernhardt,Edwards, and Wojahn (1989) found that students using computers revised their papers more thanthe non-computer groups, while also producing better papers. Word processing allows the writingprocess to take place in a relatively easy, efficient, and motivating manner.file:///A|/Kelly_litrev.htm (3 of 10) [9/17/2002 1:38:03 PM]Computer-Assisted Writing Instruction:Another area of computer-assisted writing instruction concerns writing process tutorialsoftware. These personalized computer tutors can carry students, particularly those elementaryagedstudents with special needs, on a step-by-step journey through the writing process. Zhang andBrooks (1995) note that HyperCard stacks, ROBO-Writer, Writer’s Solution, and Writing to Readare several of the tried and true process software packages that are on the markettoday.Students with learning disabilities have always presented a challenge to writing teachers. Manyhave difficulties with spelling, organization, and sentence construction, which slows down the flowof the writing process for them. Additionally, their writing tends to be disjointed, and filled withincomplete or fragmented thoughts. To compound the problem, penmanship problems can furthercloud the writing, making it a nightmare to grade. Lynch and Jones (1989) maintain that theresearch examining the writingprocesses and products of elementary students with learning disabilities (LD) generally describestudies that focus on written composition and studies that address transcription skills. Daiute(1986) notes that elementary students with learning disabilities are very much concerned about thephysical constraints in writing and are especially concerned with the aesthetic qualities of their text,such as awkward, unrecognizable handwriting.Zhang and Brooks further assert that writing process tutorial software, such as ROBO-Writer,can assist in improving both those problems relating to written composition and transcription skillsby offering a 1000-word vocabulary list from which learning disabled students can simply click theword they wish to “write,” a rudimentary speech synthesis system that translates English text intoan aural robotic-sounding electronic voice, icons, as opposed to text commands, for editing andrevising, and aesthetically pleasing, student created, publication features.Students with physical disabilities, visual impairments, or poor motor control represent otherpopulations who can especially benefit from computer-assisted writing instruction. For studentswho are very weak, such as those suffering from muscular dystrophy, pencil-and-paper writing canbe an extremely tiring task. Appropriate assistive writing technology can make writing a muchmore successful experience. Visually impaired students are excellent candidates for writingtechnology, such as talking word processors, specialized screen readers, and screen magnificationprograms. Again, this gives opportunities for written expression, which have before goneuntapped.According to research conducted through the CALL Centre (2000), students who experience motorcontrol difficulties tend to show slow formation of words and uneven or hard to read writing. Theintroduction of a keyboard-based writing system will help to combat these problems and allow thestudent to concentrate more on the content of the writing. CALL Centre research also asserts thatthere is little doubt that computer-assisted writing instruction can help these special populations toachieve.According to Reed (1996), there are three theoretical frameworks that are essential forunderstanding the direction of computer-based writing research since 1987: (a) writing processtheory, (b) Vygotsky’s (1978) term “Zone of Proximal Development,” and (c) learner-controltheory. Because each of these theories gives perspective as to what has and has not been effectivefile:///A|/Kelly_litrev.htm (4 of 10) [9/17/2002 1:38:03 PM]Computer-Assisted Writing Instruction:in the research, they will be discussed in brief.Writing process theory has developed over a sixteen-year period, and in a series of steps. TheThree-Stage Model of writing is largely based on the work of Rohman (1965), Emig (1971),Murray (1980), and Flower and Hayes (1981) and clearly shows writing as a process. As the mostsignificant of the researchers in this area, Rohman identified that effective writer’s break thewriting process down into the following three stages: (a) prewriting, (b) drafting, and (c) revising.Prewriting involves the generation of ideas for writing, along with some initial organization.Drafting occurs when the writer begins to elaborate on the ideas generated, and puts them intoformal sentence structures and paragraphs. Revising is a two-part process in which the writerrevises for meaning and revises for mechanics. Finally, the writer compares the essay he ideallyintended to produce and the one he actually produces. From this, final revisions are made.Computer-assisted writing has the potential to make the task of working through the writingprocess much more efficient, particularly with regard to the revision and editing steps.The phrase, Zone of Proximal Development, was coined in 1978 by Lev Vygotsky. It isdefined by Zellerman, Salomon, Globerson, and Givon (1991) as the zone between what studentscan already accomplish on their own and what they can accomplish with appropriate help. Theimplementation of this concept in terms of computer-assisted writinginstruction, is the help thatcomputers provide to students in learning and carrying out the writing process. Thus, the definitionis altered to what the students can write on their own, versus what they can write with computerassistance.The key to the success of this strategy, however, is that the computer-assistance shouldbe given often and over an extended period of time.According to Hannafin and Hooper (1988), learner control is an instructional strategy thatallows a learner to have control over instructional decisions. The original idea behind the theorywas that the more control a learner had over his learning, the better he would perform. Research,however, shows conflicting results. Canino and Cicchelli (1988) found in their study that there wasno significant difference in the learner-control group and the computer-control group. Hannafinand Hooper, in contrast, found the learner-control group to perform more poorly than the groupwhich was more teacher- controlled. Jonassen (1989), to account for these findings, found thathigher-level learners did actually accomplish more, based on the learner control theory.Difficulties with the theory, however, become more prevalent as the ability level of the studentdecreases. In simpler terms, better writers can extend their writing skills more from having lessassistance or more control. Less able students, however, will benefit more from support andassistance, such as that provided by composing process software.In order for computer-assisted writing instruction to be effective it must be paired witheffective writing instruction. This will help students to avoid the frustration of learning to write inaddition to learning to master the word processor (MacArthur & Schneiderman, 1986). Secondly,students need to be taught the editing, revising, and publishing features of a word processor in orderto capitalize on the tool. Thirdly, students still need to learn the writing process; the word processoris simply a tool for practice. Finally, most students will not give up if the instructor learns tosupport and have a positive attitude towards word processing with instruction in writing.The review of literature of computer-assisted writing instruction has identified several areas offile:///A|/Kelly_litrev.htm (5 of 10) [9/17/2002 1:38:03 PM]Computer-Assisted Writing Instruction:concern and needs for further research. One research gap is that limited time on task makes itdifficult to assess the true advantages of computer-assisted writing instruction. In a Canadian studyconducted by Larter et al. (1987), it was noted that the average time a student spent writing with theassistance of a computer was an hour a week. Tone and Winchester (1988) additionally note thatseveral reports indicate that many students learning to write with computers are lucky to get 30minutes experience a week. It has been proven that a lack of keyboarding skills will affect thesuccess of computer-assisted writing, but how much familiarity with keyboarding is enough to reapthe benefits?Along the same lines, how much exposure to computers and word processing programs dostudents need before they can use them effectively to carry out the writing process? Proficientword processing skills are necessary for educators to be able to implement its use in the classroom,but how much training is enough? At present, not enough writing technology is being integrated inthe classroom to provide a broad base of research findings (Clark, 1985). In addition, currentresearch does not clearly show whether improvements in writing are a result of improvedinstruction or the integration of technology.Another issue is the lack of commitment from stakeholders, such as administrators, teachers,and parents. Finally, with much of the research performed in the school setting, it is difficult tocontrol variables, thereby decreasing the validity and reliability of the results. This, in turn, limitsthe generalizability of research results.There are many advantages to the argument in favor of computer-assisted writing instruction.The ease of editing and revision is, perhaps, the strongest. Secondly, it has been shown to increasemotivation and positive attitudes towards writing, and has decreased apprehension. Usingtechnology in the writing process encourages risk-taking in writing, and promotes lengthier andmore complexly written papers. Computer-assisted writing instruction overcomes fears and biasesconcerning poor handwriting in both the writer and the instructor. It increases the speed of writingand improves the writing skills of all student populations, including those with learning disabilities,motor control difficulties, and visual impairments, when combined with appropriate teacherinstruction.There are several factorswhich can limit the success of computer-assisted writing instruction. Itmust be used as a tool for effective writing, not as a replacement for the writing instructor.Rodrigues and Rodrigues (1989) notes that word processing packages themselves do not teachstudents how to write and revise but teachers can. The level of keyboarding experience can alsoaffect the success of computer-based technology writing tools.An additional consideration is the amount of exposure to computers and word processingsoftware. It takes a substantial amount of keyboarding and word processing practice to reapsignificant gains. Another issue is the limited access to computers and technology that manyschool districts face. Finally, many instructors are not comfortable enough in their own wordprocessing proficiency skills to integrate this tool into their existing teaching methodologies.Fortunately, these limitations are very resolvable.file:///A|/Kelly_litrev.htm (6 of 10) [9/17/2002 1:38:03 PM]Computer-Assisted Writing Instruction:ConclusionsComputer-assisted writing instruction, particularly word processing, has been shown to improvestudents’ writing skills. It is highly motivational for students in that many find keyboardingenjoyable, it eases tensions about poor penmanship, it makes revising, editing, and publishingeasier, and it encourages students to experiment with different styles of writing. It is faster,allowing for a continuous flow of ideas, and it encourages collaboration with peers in the writingprocess. There are also, however, some areas of concern. Writing instruction must still be givenby the teacher, while using the word processor as a tool, in order for positive results to take place.In addition, factors such as the developmental stage of the writer, the previous exposure tocomputers, the amount of keyboarding proficiency, and access to word processors over an extendedperiod of time have a significant affect on the success of computer-assisted writing instruction.There has been a lack of research over a long enough period of time to substantiate how much isenough. It is safe to say, based on the research, that computer-assisted writing instruction hasfound its place in the 21st-century English classroom.
References
Bernhardt, S., Edwards, S., & Wojahn, P. (1989). Teaching college composition with computers: Aprogram evaluation study. Written Communication, 6(1), 108-133.CALL Centre (2000), Who can benefit from supportive writing technology? University ofEdinburgh. Retrieved October 1, 2001 from the World wide web:http://callcentre.education.ed.ac.uk/SEN/514/writing_aids_FFA/Who_SW_FFB/who_sw_ffb/whCanino,
C., & Cicchelli, T. (1988). Cognitive styles, computerized treatments on mathematicsachievement and reaction to treatments. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 4(3), 253-264.
Clark, R. (1985). Evidence for confounding in computer-based instruction studies: Analyzing themeta-analysis [Electronic version]. Educational Communication and Technology Journal, 33(4),249-262.
Daiute, C. (1986). Issues in using computers to socialize the writing process [Electronic version].Educational Communication and Technology, 33, 41-50.
Emig, J. (1971). The composing processes of twelfth graders. Urbana, IL: National Council ofTeachers of English.file:///A|/Kelly_litrev.htm (7 of 10) [9/17/2002 1:38:03 PM]Computer-Assisted Writing Instruction:
Erikson, B. J. (1992). A synthesis of studies on computer-supported composition, revision, andquality. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 25(2), 172-187. Retrieved September 27,2001, from Academic Search Premier database.
Flower, L. (1985). Problem Solving Strategies for Writing (2nd ed.). San Diego:Harcourt BraceJohanovich.
Flower, L., & Hayes, J. (1981). A cognitive process theory of writing. College Composition andCommunication, 32, 365-387.
Hannafin, M. J., & Hooper, S. (1988). Cooperative CBI: The effects of heterogeneous versushomogeneous grouping on the learning of progressively complex concepts. Journal of EducationalComputing Research, 4(4), 413-424.
Haas, C. (1996). Writing technology: Studies on the materiality of literacy. Retrieved October 1,2001, from the World Wide Web: http://www.english.ttu.edu/kairos/1.2/reviews/haas/haas.htmlJonassen, D. H. (1989). Hypertext/hypermedia. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational TechnologyPublications.
Kantrov, I. (1991). Keeping promises and avoiding pitfalls: Where teaching needs to augmentword processing [Electronic version]. Computers and Composition, 8(2), 63-77. RetrievedSeptember 17, 2001 from the World Wide Web:http://corax.cwrl.utexas.edu/cac/Archives/v8/8_2_html/8_2_6_Kantrov.html
Kurth, R. (1987). Using word processing to enhance revision strategies during student writingactivities. Educational Technology, 27(1), 13-19.
Larter, S. et al (1987). Writing with microcomputers in the elementary grades: Process, roles,attitudes, and products. Education and Technology Series, Toronto: Ontario Department ofEducation.
Lynch, E. M. & Jones, S. D. (1989). Process and product: A review of the research on LDchildren’s writing skills. Learning Disability Quarterly, 12, 74-86.
MacArthur, C. A. & Schneiderman, B. (1986). Learning disabled students’ difficulties in learningto use a word processor: Implications for instruction and software evaluation. Journal of LearningDisabilities, 19, 248-253.
Murray, D. (1980). Writing as process: How writing finds its own meaning. In T. Donovan & B.McClelland (Eds.), Eight approaches to teaching writing (pp. 3-20). Urbana, IL: National Councilfile:///A|/Kelly_litrev.htm (8 of 10) [9/17/2002 1:38:03 PM]Computer-Assisted Writing Instruction:of Teachers of English.
National Council for the Teachers of English (n.d.). Essentials of English: A document forreflection and dialogue [Electronic version]. Retrieved September 26, 2001 from the World WideWeb: http://www.ncte.org/positions/essentials.html
Reed, M. W. (1996). Assessing the impact of computer-based writing instruction. Journal ofResearch on Computing in Education, 28(4), 418-438. Retrieved September 26, 2001, AcademicSearch Premier database.
Reed, M. W. (1990). The effect of computer-and-writing instruction on prospective Englishteachers’ attitudes toward and perceived uses of computers in writing instruction [Electronicversion]. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 23(1), 3-28. Retrieved September 27,2001, Academic Search Premier database.
Robinson-Staveley, K. & Cooper, J. (1990). The use of computers for writing: Effects on anEnglish composition class. Journal of Educational Research, 6(1), 41-48.
For more details on computerized-assisted writing,you may view any of this site below:-
www.questcareer.edu
www.law.upenn.edu
www.southernct.edu
www.ohlone.edu
www.gpc.edu
www.alehblind.org
www.io.com
www.gsu.edu
www.fda.gov
www.utsa.edu
www.csd.uwo.ca
www.infomanagementcenter.com
www.cod.edu
www.biochem.arizona.edu
www.unicode.org
www.womenwriters.net
www.philadelphia.edu
Hope that all of you may understand what is computerized-assisted writing in details now. HAPPY SURFING!!!!
Hello world!!!! Here are we meet again at my sixth posting and also my last posting for my SKBP 1023 course. Before my classmates and I begun our studies in this course, during our first met with our lecturer, Prof. Dr Datin Norizan, she had asked all of us about our experience of using computers and ICT. When reached at my turn, I’ve told her that I didn’t use computers and ICT as frequently as I’m not interested in this kind of ICT. In my opinion personally before I’m learning this course, computers and ICT are only being used when I feel I want to or to complete any task given. At that moment too, I even don’t have my own mail or yet ‘friendster’ like my other classmates because I don’t think it is fun and important at all. After this whole semester, I’ve learned about computers and the applications and also not forgotten the blog, it do create a little bit of my interested in ICT and I’ve changed a lot about my opinion of the using of ICT. 